Various animal welfare models, such as the Five Freedoms, Five Domains, and Five Welfare Needs, are widely used by governments, educators, and policymakers to protect animals under human care. This study highlights concerns that some models may be outdated, especially for exotic pets, and calls for a more modern and science-based approach.

The authors assess how the most common animal welfare models apply to exotic animals in both private homes and the commercial pet trade, focusing on three areas:

1. Government policy (Tier 1);
2. Practical care guidelines (Tier 2); and
3. Welfare outcomes (Tier 3).

By comparing legal provisions and practical guidance to reported welfare issues, they evaluate how effective these models are at actually protecting exotic pets.

Animal Welfare Models

The authors provide an overview of the main animal welfare models in use around the world, evaluating each one not just in terms of its structure and focus, but also how well it aligns with modern animal welfare science, its practical application, and its presence in legislation and citation trends.

• Five Freedoms: Introduced in 1979, the Five Freedoms are widely used and cited, especially in policy. However, this model is considered outdated by many experts for focusing mainly on avoiding harm. Its provisions are often interpreted minimally and lack emphasis on promoting positive experiences.
• Five Domains: First presented in 2015 and updated in 2020, the Five Domains model is the most scientifically advanced and holistic. It includes both negative and positive states and supports the idea of a “life worth living.” While frequently cited, its complexity can deter full adoption in formal regulation.
• Five Welfare Needs: Published in 2005 and legally adopted in the U.K., the Five Welfare Needs are more outcome-focused than the Five Freedoms, but less well known globally and not widely cited. This model is seen as a practical compromise between simplicity and scientific accuracy.

Tier 1: Government Policy

The authors reviewed national, state, and provincial laws across Canada, the U.S., Austria, Belgium, Finland, France, Germany, Italy, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, the Netherlands, the U.K., Australia, and New Zealand. They checked whether governments explicitly named a model or listed specific criteria from it, such as “freedom from cruelty and neglect,” to see if the law followed that model.

Out of the 91 regions examined, most animal welfare legislation was aligned with the Five Freedoms (64 regions), followed by the Five Welfare Needs (26 regions), while only one region aligned with the Five Domains.

Tier 2: Practical Care Guidelines

The authors also reviewed codes and regulations for the same regions, using targeted search strings such as “government pet animal care guideline OR legislation OR regulation” in two major search engines. They categorized the codes and regulations based on how detailed the guidance was.

Only 35 out of the 91 regions had adopted formal guidance of some sort, with less than half of those (14 regions) offering specific husbandry and management advice.

So, taken together, most countries still rely on older welfare models like the Five Freedoms, and many don’t provide detailed enough rules for how animals should be treated in practice.

Tier 3: Welfare Outcomes

Using two major search engines, the authors then conducted a rapid literature review to identify real-world welfare outcomes for exotic pets across different animal groups.

The review found serious animal welfare concerns for all groups, with reptiles and mammals showing the highest number of issues (43 each), followed by fishes (27), amphibians (26), birds (22), and invertebrates (21).

Many exotic animals face poor living conditions like dirty, cramped enclosures, improper temperature and humidity levels, and a lack of enrichment and social interaction. Across nearly all species, signs of stress, abnormal behaviors, injuries from rough handling, and untreated illnesses were common. Even well-known exotic pets like hedgehogs or bearded dragons, often marketed as “easy” to care for, show persistent welfare issues, raising concerns for the thousands of less-studied species.

Thus, this mismatch between the guidance offered and the real-life needs of exotic pets shows that even well-intentioned welfare frameworks often fall short in protecting these animals.

To sum up, while models like the Five Freedoms, Five Domains, and Five Welfare Needs were created to improve animal welfare and are widely used in policy, they often fail in practice, especially for exotic pets. Many animals still suffer because these models are applied minimally or inconsistently, often favoring the pet trade over animal well-being. The authors argue that to truly protect animals, the focus needs to shift from basic care to what they term “animal-centric preferred life quality” — a life the animal would choose based on their natural needs and preferences. Thus, animal welfare, not convenience or profit, must be the central goal.

Ultimately, the study challenges caretakers and policymakers to go beyond minimum standards and start asking, “If given the chance, would the animal stay?”