Studies have shown that visitor perceptions of animal welfare can significantly impact zoos’ conservation, education, and care missions by influencing financial support and engagement. Despite growing research on public perceptions of zoo animal welfare, the specific factors influencing these perceptions remain unclear.

To address this gap, researchers conducted a systematic literature review to identify zoo attributes influencing visitor perceptions of animal welfare and characterize how these perceptions impact visitor attitudes, experiences, and behavior.

Using four major databases and strict inclusion criteria, the researchers searched for articles that were peer-reviewed, in English, and published after 1990. For the purpose of the review, zoos were defined according to U.K. zoo licensing requirements, meaning that non-traditional facilities such as elephant camps and tiger temples were excluded. Studies could be from anywhere in the world and study participants could be of any age. The researchers were guided by the Five Domains model, which recognizes that an animal’s welfare is affected by their nutrition, physical environment, health, behavioral interactions, and mental state.

A total of 114 articles were analyzed: 43 provided qualitative data for thematic analysis and 85 reported quantitative data for content analysis. Due to the similarity between these analyses, findings were presented together. Themes were grouped according to three overarching categories:

1. Human-level factors, such as beliefs about captivity and inappropriate visitor behaviors;
2. Animal-level factors, including species, behavior, and health status; and
3. Environment-level factors like enclosure size, design, and condition.

Human-Level Factors

Notably, visitors’ welfare perceptions begin forming before their zoo visits, influenced by their pre-existing views on animal captivity.

While zoos are seen as protectors of vulnerable animals, particularly rescued or captive-bred individuals, captivity is generally viewed as detrimental to welfare. Visitors believe animals have fundamental rights to life, end-of-life care, and environmental control, including choices about food, activities, and privacy. A common misconception is that zoos regularly release animals to the wild, despite housing many non-endangered species outside release programs.

Animal encounters and shows draw mixed reactions from zoo visitors. While some view direct human contact as unnatural and potentially harmful, others see it as evidence of positive keeper-animal bonds. However, views vary by species and staff qualifications. Similarly, training draws contrasting opinions — seen either as enriching or stressful. Acceptance improves when positive reinforcement is used and animals appear to participate voluntarily.

Visitor behavior, including unauthorized feeding, touching, flash photography, noise, teasing, throwing items, and harassment, poses significant concerns. Although zoos justify their role through education, research, and conservation, they often prioritize human benefits over animal welfare, with some even viewing poor welfare as an acceptable educational sacrifice. While zoos attempt to address these issues through educational interventions, studies show mixed results on their effectiveness. Further research is needed to develop better methods for promoting appropriate visitor behavior.

Animal-Level Factors

Research shows that zoos’ ability to provide appropriate habitats affects welfare perceptions, particularly for certain species. Whales, dolphins, porpoises, polar bears, primates, and elephants generate the most concern due to their intelligence, size, and complex needs. Visitors believe more intelligent animals are prone to boredom in captivity, and some argue certain species belong only in their natural habitats. This creates a paradox since these same animals are the most popular with visitors, forcing zoos to balance attraction value with welfare concerns.

Animal behavior strongly influences welfare perceptions. Active and natural behaviors are seen as positive indicators, while inactivity or abnormal behaviors suggest poor welfare. However, visitors often struggle to accurately identify natural versus stereotypic behaviors, particularly with pacing. Social behaviors receive mixed interpretations. Aggression may be viewed negatively or as natural depending on the species, while play and affiliative (friendly) behaviors consistently indicate positive welfare.

Health status emerges as a fundamental welfare indicator. Visitors expect appropriate medical care and judge welfare based on appearance, weight, and grooming. Poor health can override other positive factors like enclosure quality. Studies show varying prioritization of physical health versus other welfare aspects like behavioral needs and natural environments, suggesting the need for more holistic welfare assessment approaches.

Environment-Level Factors

Facility characteristics significantly shape perceptions of zoo animal welfare. Wildlife and safari parks receive more favorable views than traditional zoos and marine parks, while education- and conservation-focused facilities are perceived more positively than entertainment-oriented ones. Zoo involvement in research is generally considered ethically justified, though some view it as potentially unpleasant for animals. Others strongly support zoo research and believe it benefits both captive animals and wild populations through improved biological understanding and care practices.

Regarding enclosure design, naturalistic exhibits consistently generate positive responses, though visible barriers, like bars, create negative impressions even when they increase usable space. Size is universally important. Larger enclosures suggest better welfare, with indoor spaces generally viewed less favorably than outdoor ones. Environmental enrichment, especially feeding opportunities, enhances welfare perceptions, though visitors often struggle to recognize enrichment elements.

Other environmental factors that affect welfare perceptions include:

• Species-appropriate social groupings, with isolation raising concerns;
• Facility age, with newer facilities generally viewed as providing better welfare conditions; and
• Facility size, with smaller facilities seen as less exploitative but potentially lacking resources for optimal care.

The Impact Of Visitor Perceptions

Ultimately, visitor experiences at zoos are significantly impacted by welfare perceptions. Positive perceptions increase visitor satisfaction and emotional connection to animals, leading to more visits and conservation support. While negative perceptions generally reduce visits and donations, some factors (like children’s interests) override welfare concerns. Non-visitors tend to have lower welfare perceptions than regular visitors, though the definition of “non-visitors” needs to be standardized for better research comparisons.

Studies show mixed results on using educational interpretation to improve visitor perceptions of zoo animal welfare. While information about welfare accreditation and care practices sometimes improves perceptions, details about choices provided to animals show little impact. Animal behavior may influence perceptions more than educational materials.

For advocates, this review provides an in-depth look at what zoo visitors think about animal welfare. In particular, it highlights the need for more effective and tailored communication, given the complex and often contradictory views that people hold. Zoos must address visitor concerns while prioritizing animal care.

Potential limitations of this research include missed studies, search system variations, and the exclusion of non-English and gray literature such as reports, newsletters, and book chapters. Zoos frequently conduct unpublished research on visitor perceptions, making it difficult to access and include this work in systematic reviews. According to the researchers, future studies should assess emotional responses, expand beyond mammalian species and North American contexts, and consider cultural variations in how welfare is perceived across different facility types and locations.